Exploring the conditions that shape climate and whether humans can influence it.
Climate is the long-term weather pattern characteristic of a particular region.
The word “climate” has ancient origins. It entered the Ukrainian language from Latin, which, in turn, borrowed it from Ancient Greek, where it meant “inclination” and referred to the angle of the sun’s rays relative to the Earth’s surface.
The term was first used by the scientist Hipparchus, who lived between 190-120 BCE. He studied natural patterns related to weather and correlated weather conditions with varying solar illumination of the Earth. Ultimately, he concluded that climate depends on geographic latitude.
Climate was also actively studied in Ancient China, but local researchers believed the primary factor shaping weather was the influence of two major rivers—the Yellow River (Huang He) and the Yangtze.
Today, climate is studied just as actively as in ancient times, through the science of climatology.
Weather is the current state of the lower atmosphere.
Weather is changeable and unpredictable, unlike climate, which remains relatively stable. We know that in Scandinavia, snow usually falls in November and stays until March. We know that by late April, temperatures typically rise, rivers thaw, and streams begin to flow. We know that June brings warm summers filled with the scent of wildflowers and berries. Yet, unlike climate, weather in our country is entirely unpredictable: snow and rain, frost and thaw can alternate within a single day. Previously, we wrote about why it rains and where snow comes from.
So, what factors determine climate type?
Several factors influence climate formation.
The most critical factor is the angle at which solar rays strike the Earth’s surface, which depends on the region’s location on the globe.
The maximum angle occurs at the equator, where the sun can be directly overhead (at its zenith), forming a 90° angle. In these low latitudes, solar rays are not scattered in the atmosphere or glancing off the Earth—they are almost entirely absorbed by the surface, which then heats the air. In equatorial regions, weather aligns with climate—year-round hot and very humid summers.
Due to uneven heating caused by varying solar angles, areas of high and low atmospheric pressure form. These influence air masses—large volumes of air with distinct properties such as temperature, pressure, and humidity.
Types of air masses:
Atmospheric circulation also generates constant winds that shape different climatic zones. By the way, do you know the difference between a typhoon, hurricane, and cyclone?
Another crucial factor affecting air heating. The underlying surface can be land or large water bodies. Did you know the Southern Hemisphere, despite its name, is colder than the Northern Hemisphere due to its higher water coverage? Land heats up much faster than water but also loses heat more quickly.
This property significantly impacts climate. For example, in temperate coastal regions, seas or oceans absorb heat over three summer months, moderating winter temperatures. They release stored heat, turning winter into a relatively warm season—without snow or severe frosts.
Surface reflectivity also plays a major role: a freshly plowed field in the steppe absorbs and releases far more heat than a snow-covered polar desert.
Plains allow air masses to penetrate deep into continents, spreading moist maritime or dry continental air. Mountains, however, act as barriers, shaping local climates.
Elevation above sea level also matters—higher altitudes are colder, as evidenced by snow-capped peaks in mountains located even in hot tropics.
Currents are massive water flows in the ocean, like giant rivers with unique characteristics.
Warm currents raise air temperatures, increasing evaporation and precipitation. They bring humid air to coastal regions, moderating winter temperatures and cooling summers.
Cold currents lower air temperatures, reducing evaporation and precipitation. Coastal climates near cold currents are drier, with greater seasonal temperature variations.
For example, the Namib Desert in southwestern Africa borders the Atlantic Ocean. Why would one of the harshest and driest deserts lie near a vast water body?
The cold Benguela Current flows nearby, originating near Antarctica. Minimal evaporation occurs, leaving no moisture for rain. The temperature contrast between the frigid Atlantic and scorching desert air creates dense fog, covering coastal areas for kilometers.
In medieval times, wooden ships lost in this fog wrecked on barren shores, and survivors perished in the uninhabited sands. Modern ships with satellite navigation avoid these dangers, but the region’s ominous reputation lingers.
A similar situation exists in one of Earth’s driest places—the Atacama Desert on South America’s Pacific coast. The cold Peru Current caused no rainfall from 1570 to 1971! We’ve previously written about other weather records.
This affects climate continentality. Near coasts, temperature variations are smaller, air is more humid, and precipitation is frequent. Inland, continentality increases—seasons become more pronounced, temperature differences grow, and air becomes drier.
Earth has 13 climate zones: seven primary and six transitional. How to distinguish them?
Primary zones are named after their dominant air mass (e.g., equatorial, temperate). Transitional zones use the prefix “sub-“.
The key difference: primary zones maintain one air mass year-round, while transitional zones alternate between two—northern air in winter, southern in summer.
Let’s explore climate zones in detail.
Located at the equator, dominated by hot, humid equatorial air.
This zone includes the Amazon Basin (Brazil, Ecuador, Peru), Africa’s Gulf of Guinea coast (Congo Basin—Central African Republic, Nigeria, Congo, Tanzania), Indonesian islands, southern Sri Lanka, and the Malay Peninsula.
It’s a land of eternal summer: average temperature +27°C, annual variation just 2-3°C. Rainfall exceeds 3,000 mm yearly (up to 10,000 mm in places), with humidity around 95%. Mornings are hot; by noon, heavy rains begin, lasting until mid-afternoon, followed by intense evaporation under scorching sun. Despite abundant warmth and moisture, this zone is inhospitable for humans.
Extends to 20° latitude in both hemispheres. Two air masses interact here: dry tropical air in winter (from the north) and humid equatorial air in summer (from the south). Temperatures remain high year-round—no colder than +15°C in winter, averaging +28°C. Summer brings heavy rains; winter is dry. Seasonal monsoons—winds reversing direction between ocean and land—shape this climate.
Located between 20°-30° latitude in both hemispheres. Hot, dry tropical air prevails year-round. Home to Earth’s largest deserts—Sahara, Great Victoria Desert. Winter temperatures stay above +15°C; summers exceed +30°C. Annual rainfall rarely surpasses 250 mm. Trade winds are constant here. This is the quintessential desert climate.
Between 30°-45° latitude in both hemispheres. A transitional zone: cool, moist temperate air in winter; hot, dry tropical air in summer. Winter temperatures can near 0°C; summers reach +40°C. Precipitation is uneven—winters are wet; summers are dry. Divided into dry continental and Mediterranean subtypes, the latter considered most favorable for humans.
Spans 45° to polar circles in both hemispheres. Dominated by temperate air masses. Features cold winters and warm summers, influenced by prevailing westerlies. Four distinct seasons.
Due to Eurasia’s vast east-west expanse, this zone has four subtypes:
Subarctic covers northern North America/Eurasia and Arctic islands; subantarctic spans 60°S. Long winters below -25°C (colder in Southern Hemisphere); brief summers around +10°C. Northern precipitation ~200 mm; southern ~500 mm.
Arctic: North of 70°N (Arctic Ocean islands); Antarctic: South of 65°S (most of Antarctica).
Polar night lasts months without sunlight; polar day features low sun angles that barely warm ice-covered surfaces. Eternal winter: summer temperatures stay below 0°C; winters drop below -40°C. Persistent easterly winds; scant precipitation (~100 mm) as frost or ice needles. Antarctica holds Earth’s coldest recorded temperature (-89.2°C) and driest place—McMurdo Dry Valves, without rain for over 2 million years.
Climate shapes moisture distribution, river/lake behavior, and water sources (rain, snow, glaciers, groundwater).
It intensifies weathering—external processes like wind, solar radiation, flowing water, and biological activity that erode even the tallest mountains over millennia.
Soil formation accelerates in warm, humid climates compared to polar regions.
Flora and fauna depend heavily on climate. Favorable conditions support thriving ecosystems with ample resources.
Climate profoundly affects humans. Optimal conditions: +18…+23°C temperatures, moderate humidity, sunny days, and near-standard atmospheric pressure (760 mmHg).
While humans adapt to diverse climates, abrupt shifts can be harmful. Doctors caution against winter vacations in tropical/equatorial zones for temperate dwellers—such stress may trigger organ dysfunction or illness.
Human activity often negatively impacts climate. Deforestation and burning fossil fuels (oil, coal, gas) drive global warming, causing:
These changes degrade human life quality. Protecting our environment and preserving Earth’s climate is crucial.
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